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1、1 MarketingMyopiaTheodoreLevitt ReprintedbypermissionofthepublishersfromEdwardC.BurskandJohnF.Chapman,eds.,ModernMarketingStrategy(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1964),bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege；originallypublishedintheHarvardBusinessReview,38(July-August1960),pp.24-47.Theretro

2、spectivecommentarywaspublishedintheHarvardBusinessReview,53 (September-October1975),copyrightbythePresidentandFellowsofHarvard College；allrightsreserved. Everymajorindustrywasonceagrowthindustry.Butsomethatarenowridingawaveofgrowthenthusiasmareverymuch intheshadowofdecline.Others, whicharethoughtofa

3、sseasonedgrowthindustries,haveactuallystoppedgrowing.Ineverycasethereasongrowthisthreatened,slowed,orstoppedisnotbecausethemarketissaturated.Itisbecausetherehasbeenafailureofmanagement. FATEFULPURPOSES Thefailureisatthetop.Theexecutivesresponsibleforit,inthelastanalysis,arethosewhodealwithbroadaimsa

4、ndpolicies.Thus: Therailroadsdidnotstopgrowingbecause theneedforpassengerandfreighttransportationdeclined.Thatgrew.Therailroadsareintroubletodaynotbecausetheneedwasfilledbyothers(cars,trucks,airplanes,eventelephones),butbecauseitwasnotfilledbytherailroadsthemselves.Theyletotherstake customers away f

5、romthembecause they assumed themselvesto be in therailroadbusinessrather thanin thetransportation business.The reasonthey definedtheirindustrywrongwasbecausetheywere railroad-orientedinsteadoftransportation-oriented；theywereproduct-orientedinsteadofcustomer-oriented. Hollywoodbarelyescapedbeingtotal

6、lyravishedbytelevision；actually,alltheestablishedfilmcompanieswentthroughdrasticreorganizations.Somesimplydisappeared.AllofthemgotintotroublenotbecauseofTVsinroadsbutbecauseoftheirownmyopia.Aswiththerailroads,Hollywooddefineditsbusinessincorrectly.Itthoughtitwasinthemoviebusinesswhenitwasactuallyint

7、heentertainmentbusiness.Moviesimpliedaspecific,limitedproduct.Thisproducedafatuouscontentment,whichfromthebeginningledproducerstoviewTVasathreat.HollywoodscornedandrejectedTVwhenitshouldhavewelcomeditasanopportunity-anopportunitytoexpandtheentertainmentbusiness. TodayTVisabiggerbusinessthantheoldnar

8、rowlydefinedmoviebusinesseverwas.HadHollywoodbeencustomer-oriented(providingentertainment),ratherthanproduct-oriented(making movies), would ithave gonethrough the fiscal purgatory that 2 itdid?Idoubtit.WhatultimatelysavedHollywoodandaccountedforitsrecentresurgencewasthewaveofnewyoungwriters,producer

9、s,anddirectorswhoseprevioussuccessesintelevisionhaddecimatedtheoldmoviecompaniesandtoppledthebigmoviemoguls. Thereareotherlessobviousexamplesofindustriesthathavebeenandarenowendangeringtheirfuturesbyimproperlydefiningtheirpurposes.Ishalldiscusssomeindetaillaterandanalyzethekindofpoliciesthatleadtotr

10、ouble.Rightnowitmayhelptoshowwhatathoroughlycustomer-orientedmanagementcandotokeepagrowthindustrygrowing,evenaftertheobviousopportunitieshavebeenexhausted；andheretherearetwoexamplesthathavebeenaroundforalongtime.Theyarenylonandglass-specifically,E.I.DuPontdeNemours8cCompanyandCorningGlassWorks:Bothc

11、ompanieshavegreattechnicalcompetence.Theirproductorientationisunquestioned.Butthisalonedoesnotexplaintheirsuccess. Afterall,whowasmorepridefulproduct-orientedand product-consciousthantheerstwhile NewEngland textilecompanies that havebeen so thoroughlymassacred?TheDuPontandtheCorninghavesucceedednotp

12、rimarilybecauseoftheirproductorresearchorientationbutbecausetheyhavebeenthoroughlycustomer-orientedalso.Itisconstantwatchfulnessforopportunitiestoapplytheirtechnicalknow-howtothecreationofcustomersatisfyinguses,whichaccountsfortheirprodigiousoutputofsuccessfulnewproducts.Withoutaverysophisticatedeye

13、onthecustomer,mostoftheirnewproductsmighthavebeenwrong,theirsalesmethodsuseless. Aluminumhasalsocontinuedtobeagrowthindustry,thankstotheeffortsoftwowartime-createdcompanies,whichdeliberatelysetaboutcreatingnewcustomersatisfyinguses.WithoutKaiserAluminum8CChemicalCorporationandReynoldsMetalsCompany,t

14、hetotaldemandforaluminumtodaywouldbevastlylessthanitis. ErrorofAnalysis Somemayarguethatitisfoolishtosettherailroadsoffagainstaluminumorthemovies offagainstglass.Arenotaluminumandglassnaturallysoversatilethattheindustriesare bound to have more growthopportunities than therailroadsand movies?This vie

15、wcommitspreciselytheerrorIhavebeentalkingabout.Itdefinesanindustry,oraproduct,oraclusterofknow-howsonarrowlyastoguaranteeitsprematuresenescence.Whenwementionrailroads,weshouldmakesurewemeantransportation.Astransporters,therailroadsstillhaveagoodchanceforveryconsiderablegrowth.Theyarenotlimitedtother

16、ailroadbusinessassuch(thoughinmyopinionrailtransportationispotentiallyamuch strongertransportationmediumthanisgenerallybelieved). 3 Whattherailroadslackisnotopportunity,butsomeofthesamemanagerialimaginativenessandaudacitythatmadethemgreat.EvenanamateurlikeJacquesBarzuncanseewhatislackingwhenhesays:I

17、 grievetoseethemostadvancedphysicalandsocialorganizationofthelastcenturygodowninshabbydisgraceforlackofthesamecomprehensiveimaginationthatbuiltitup.Whatislackingisthewillofthecompaniestosurviveandtosatisfythepublic byinventivenessandskill. SHADOWOFOBSOLESCENCE Itisimpossibletomentionasinglemajorindu

18、strythatdidnotatonetimequalifyfor themagicappellationofgrowthindustry.Ineachcaseitsassumedstrengthlayintheapparentlyunchallengedsuperiorityofitsproduct. Thereappearedto benoeffectivesubstituteforit. Itwas itselfarunawaysubstitute fortheproductitsotriumphantlyreplaced.Yetoneafteranotherofthesecelebra

19、tedindustrieshascomeunderashadow.Letuslookbrieflyatafewmoreofthem,thistimetakingexamplesthathavesofarreceivedalittlelessattention: JacquesBarzun,TrainsandtheMindofMan,Holiday(February1960),p.21. DryCleaning.Thiswasonceagrowthindustrywithlavishprospects.Inanageofwoolgarments,imaginebeingfinallyableto

20、getthemsafelyandeasilyclean.Theboomwason.Yethereweare30yearsaftertheboomstartedandtheindustryisintrouble.Wherehas thecompetitioncome from? Fromabetterwayof cleaning?No.It hascomefromsyntheticfibersandchemicaladditivesthathavecuttheneedfordrycleaning.Butthisisonlythebeginning.Lurkinginthewingsandread

21、ytomakechemicaldrycleaningtotallyobsolescentisthatpowerfulmagician,ultrasonic. ElectricUtilities.Thisisanotheroneofthosesupposedlyno-substituteproductsthathasbeenenthronedonapedestalofinvinciblegrowth.Whentheincandescentlampcamealong,kerosenelightswerefinished.Laterthewaterwheelandthesteamenginewere

22、cuttoribbonsbytheflexibility,reliability,simplicity,andjustplaineasyavailabilityofelectricmotors.Theprosperityofelectricutilitiescontinuestowaxextravagantasthehomeisconvertedintoamuseumofelectricgadgetry.Howcananybodymissbyinvestinginutilities,withnocompetition,nothingbutgrowthahead? Butasecondlooki

23、snotquitesocomforting.Ascoreofnoutilitycompaniesarewelladvancedtoward,developingapowerfulchemicalfuelcellwhichcouldsitinsomehiddenclosetofeveryhomesilentlytickingoffelectricpower.Theelectriclinesthatvulgarizesomanyneighborhoodswillbeeliminated.Sowilltheendlessdemolitionofstreetsandserviceinterruptionsduringstorms.Alsoonthehorizonissolarenergy,againpioneeredbynoutilitycompanies.