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2、 线 Multi-Domain Simulation: Mechanics and Hydraulics of an Excavator Abstract It is demonstrated how to model and simulate an excavator with Modelica and Dymola by using Modelica libraries for mult
3、i-body and for hydraulic systems. The hydraulic system is controlled by a “load sensing” controller. Usually, models containing 3-dimensional mechanical and hydraulic components are difficult to simulate. At hand of the excavator it is shown that Modelica is well suited for such kinds of system simu
4、lations. 1. Introduction The design of a new product requires a number of decisions in the initial phase that severely affect the success of the finished machine. Today, digital simulation is therefore used in early stages to look at different concepts. The view of this paper is that a new excavator
5、 is to be designed and several candidates of hydraulic control systems have to be evaluated. Systems that consist of 3-dimensional mechanical and of hydraulic components like excavators are difficult to simulate. Usually, two different simulation environments have to be coupled. This is often
6、inconvenient, leads to unnecessary numerical problems and has fragile interfaces. In this article it is demonstrated at hand of the model of an excavator that Modelica is well suited for these types of systems. The 3-dimensional components of the excavator are modeled with the new, free Modeli
7、ca MultiBody library. This allows especially to use an analytic solution of the kinematic loop at the bucket and to take the masses of the hydraulic cylinders, i.e., the “force elements”, directly into account. The hydraulic part is modeled in a detailed way, utilizing pump, valves and cylinders fro
8、m HyLib, a hydraulics library for Modelica. For the control part a generic “load sensing” control system is used, modeled by a set of simple equations. This approach gives the required results and keeps the time needed for analyzing the problem on a reasonable level. 2. Modeling Choices There
9、are several approaches when simulating a system. Depending on the task it may be necessary to build a very precise model, containing every detail of the system and needing a lot of information, e.g., model parameters. This kind of models is expensive to build up but on the other hand very useful if
10、parameters of a well defined system have to be modified. A typical example is the optimization of parameters of a counterbalance valve in an excavator (Kraft 1996). The other kind of model is needed for a first study of a system. In this case some properties of the pump, cylinders and loads ar
11、e specified. Required is information about the performance of that system, e.g., the speed of the pistons or the necessary input power at the pump shaft, to make a decision whether this design can be used in principle for the task at hand. This model has therefore to be “cheap”, i.e., it must be pos
12、sible to build it in a short time without detailed knowledge of particular components. The authors intended to build up a model of the second type, run it and have first results with a minimum amount of time spent. To achieve this goal the modeling language Modelica (Modelica 2002), the Modeli
13、ca simulation environment Dymola (Dymola 2003), the new Modelica library for 3-dimensional mechanical systems “MultiBody” (Otter et al. 2003) and the Modelica library of hydraulic components HyLib (Beater 2000) was used. The model consists of the 3-dimensional mechanical construction of the excavato
14、r, a detailed description of the power hydraulics and a generic “load sensing” controller. This model will be available as a demo in the next version of HyLib. 3. Construction of Excavators In Figure 1 a schematic drawing of a typical excavator under consideration is shown. It consists of a ch
15、ain track and the hydraulic propel drive which is used to manoeuvre the machine but usually not during a work cycle. On top of that is a carriage where the operator is sitting. It can rotate around a vertical axis with respect to the chain track. It also holds the Diesel engine, the hydraulic pumps
16、and control system. Furthermore, there is a boom, an arm and at the end a bucket which is attached via a planar kinematic loop to the arm. Boom, arm and bucket can be rotated by the appropriate cylinders. 毕业设计（论文）报告纸 共 页 第 2 页
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18、bsp; Figure 2 shows that the required pressures in the cylinders depend on the position. For the “stretched” situation the pressure in the boom cylinder is 60 % higher than in the retracted position. Not only the position but also the movements have to be taken into account. Figure 3 sh
19、ows a situation where the arm hangs down. If the carriage does not rotate there is a pulling force required in the cylinder. When rotating excavators can typically rotate with up to 12 revolutions per minute the force in the arm cylinder changes its sign and now a pushing force is needed. This chang
20、e is very significant because now the “active” chamber of the cylinder switches and that must be taken into account by the control system. Both figures demonstrate that a simulation model must take into account the couplings between the four degrees of freedom this excavator has. A simpler model tha
21、t uses a constant load for each cylinder and the swivel drive leads to erroneous results 4. Load Sensing System Excavators have typically one Diesel engine, two hydraulic motors and three cylinders. There exist different hydraulic circuits to provide the consumers with the required hydraulic e
22、nergy. A typical design is a Load Sensing circuit that is energy efficient and user friendly. The idea is to have a flow rate control system for the pump such that it delivers exactly the needed flow rate. As a sensor the pressure drop across an orifice is used. The reference value is the resistance
23、 of the orifice. A schematic drawing is shown in figure 4, a good introduction to that topic is given in (anon. 1992). The pump control valve maintains a pressure at the pump port that is typically 15 bar higher than the pressure in the LS line (= Load Sensing line). If the directional valve i
24、s closed the pump has therefore a stand-by pressure of 15 bar. If it is open the pump delivers a flow rate that leads to a pressure drop of 15 bar across that directional valve. Note: The directional valve is not used to throttle the pump flow but as a flow meter (pressure drop that is fed back) and
25、 as a reference (resistance). The circuit is energy efficient because the pump delivers only the needed flow rate, the throttling losses are small compared to other circuits. If more than one cylinder is used the circuit becomes more complicated, see figure 5. E.g. if the boom requires a press
26、ure of 100 bar and the bucket a pressure of 300 bar the pump pressure must be above 300 bar which would cause an unwanted movement of the boom cylinder. Therefore compensators are used that throttle the oil flow and thus achieve a pressure drop of 15 bar across the particular directional valve. Thes
27、e compensators can be installed upstream or downstream of the directional valves. An additional valve reduces the nominal pressure differential if the maximum pump flow rate or the maximum pressure is reached (see e.g. Nikolaus 1994). 5. Model of Mechanical Part In Figure 6, a Modelica s
28、chematic of the mechanical part is shown. The chain track is not modeled, i.e., it is assumed that the chain track does not move. Components “rev1”, ., “rev4” are the 4 revolute joints to move the parts relative to each other. The icons with the long black line are “virtual” rods that are used to ma
29、rk specific points on a part, especially the mounting points of the hydraulic cylinders. The light blue spheres (b2, b3, b4, b5) are bodies that have mass and an inertia tensor and are used to model the corresponding properties of the excavator parts. The three components “cyl1f”, “cyl2f”, and
30、 “cyl3f” are line force components that describe a force interaction along a line between two attachment points. The small green squares at these components represent 1-dimensional translational connectors from theModelica.Mechanics. Translational library. They are used to define the 1- dimensional
31、force law acting between the two attachment points. Here, the hydraulic cylinders described in the next section are directly attached. The small two spheres in the icons of the “cyl1f, cyl2f, cyl3f” components indicate that optionally two point masses are taken into account that are attached at defi
32、ned distances from the attachment points along the connecting line. This allows to easily model the essential mass properties (mass and center of mass) of the hydraulic cylinders with only a very small computational overhead. The jointRRR component (see right part of Figure 6) is an assembly e
33、lement consisting of 3 revolute joints that form together a planar loop when connected to the arm. A picture of this part of an excavator, a zoom in the corresponding Modelica schematic and the animation view is shown in Figure 7. When moving revolute joint “rev4” (= the large red cylinder in the lo
34、wer part of Figure 7； the small 毕业设计（论文）报告纸 共 页 第 3 页 装 订 &n
35、bsp; 线 red cylinders characterize the 3 revolute joints of the jointRRR assembly component) the position and orientation of the attachment points of the “left” and “right” revolute jo
36、ints of the jointRRR component are known. There is a non-linear algebraic loop in the jointRRR component to compute the angles of its three revolute joints given the movement of these attachment points. This non-linear system of equations is solved analytically in the jointRRR object, i.e., in a rob
37、ust and efficient way. For details see In a first step, the mechanical part of the excavator is simulated without the hydraulic system to test this part separatly. This is performed by attaching translational springs with appropriate spring constants instead of the hydraulic cylinders. After the ani
38、mation looks fine and the forces and torques in the joints have the expected size, the springs are replaced by the hydraulic system described in the next sections. All components of the new MultiBody library have “built-in” animation definitions, i.e., animation properties are mostly deduced b
39、y default from the given definition of the multi-body system. For example, a rod connecting two revolute joints is by default visualized as cylinder where the diameter d is a fraction of the cylinder length L (d = L/40) which is in turn given by the distance of the two revolute joints. A revolute jo
40、int is by default visualized by a red cylinder directed along the axis of rotation of the joint. The default animation (with only a few minor adaptations) of the excavator is shown if Figure 8. The light blue spheres characterize the center of mass of bodies. The line force elements that visualize t
41、he hydraulic cylinders are defined by two cylinders (yellow and grey color) that are moving in each other. As can be seen, the default animation is useful to get, without extra work from the user side, a rough picture of the model that allows to check the most important properties visually, e.g., wh
42、ether the center of masses or attachment points are at the expected places. For every component the default animation can be switched off via a Boolean flag. Removing appropriate default animations, such as the “centerof- mass spheres”, and adding some components that have pure visual informat
43、ion (all visXXX components in the schematic of Figure 6) gives quickly a nicer animation, as is demonstrated in Figure 9. Also CAD data could be utilized for the animation, but this was not available for the examination of this excavator. 6. The Hydraulics Library HyLib The (commercial) Modeli
44、ca library HyLib (Beater 2000, HyLib 2003) is used to model the pump, metering orifice, load compensator and cylinder of the hydraulic circuit. All these components are standard components for hydraulic circuits and can be obtained from many manufacturers. Models of all of them are contained in HyLi
45、b. These mathematical models include both standard textbook models (e. g. Dransfield 1981, Merrit 1967, Viersma 1980) and the most advanced published models that take the behavior of real components into account (Schulz 1979, Will 1968). An example is the general pump model where the output flow is
46、reduced if pressure at the inlet port falls below atmospheric pressure. Numerical properties were also considered when selecting a model (Beater 1999). One point worth mentioning is the fact that all models can be viewed at source code level and are documented by approx. 100 references from easily a
47、vailable literature. After opening the library, the main window is displayed (Figure 10). A double click on the “pumps” icon opens the selection for all components that are needed to originate or end an oil flow (Figure 11). For the problem at hand, a hydraulic flow source with internal leakag
48、e and externally commanded flow rate is used. Similarly the needed models for the valves, cylinders and other components are chosen. All components are modeled hierarchically. Starting with a definition of a connector a port were the oil enters or leaves the component a template for components
49、 with two ports is written. This can be inherited for ideal models, e.g., a laminar resistance or a pressure relief valve. While it usually makes sense to use textual input for these basic models most of the main library models were programmed graphically, i.e., composed from basic library models us
50、ing the graphical user interface. Figure12 gives an example of graphical programming. All mentioned components were chosen from the library and then graphically connected. 7. Library Components in Hydraulics Circuit The composition diagram in Figure 12 shows the graphically composed hydraulics part of the excavator model. The sub models are chosen from the appropriate libraries, connected and the
