1、 3615 单词， 3500 汉字 原文 Exploratory Behavior and the Welfare of Intensively Kept Animals Material Source: Journal of Agricultural Ethics, Volume 2, pp. 161-169 Author: D. G. M. Wood-Gush, K. Vestergaard ABSTRACT Exploratory behavior is considered underthe following categories:(1)extrinsic exploration i
2、n which the animal seeks information about convention reinforcers such as food, (2) intrinsic exploration which is directed toward stimuli which may have no biological significance, further divided into inspective and inquisitive exploration. In the former the animal inspects a particular object； in
3、 the latter, the animal performs behavior to make a change in its environment, rather than merely responding to a change. Extrinsic exploration is synonymous with the ethological term,appetitive behavior.It is shown that much of the behavior indicative of frustration reported in intensively housed a
4、nimals occurs when the appetitive component of a drive rather than the consummatory component, is prevented.Consideration of inspective exploration is necessary for good husbandry practice, for fear is an important competing response. Inquisitive exploration has not been widely investigated in infra
5、primate species, but the authors present several possible examples in thespecies of common agricultural animals.However, they suggest that the propensity to show this type of exploration may vary between closely related species. In environments barren to the extent of stifling exploration, animals m
6、ay develop apathy, and its relevance to animal welfare is discussed. Keywords Exploratory behavior, animal welfare, farm animals, zoo animals. Exploratory behavior is a largely neglected area of animal behavior but we feel that it is a major factor to be considered in the welfare of animals. Berlyne
7、 (1960) divided it into a number of categories:Extrinsic exploratory behavior consists of those responses directed at obtaining information about conventional reinforcers such as food or a nesting site. It is thus synonymous with appetitive behavior and in this article we interchange the terms. Intr
8、insic exploration,on the other hand, is defined as exploration directed at stimuli that may have no biological significance； the investigation of a novel object in the animals habitual environment would fall into this category. Berlyne further istin-guished between inspection of a particular object,
9、 inspective exploration, and inquisitive in which the animal performs behavior to make a change rather than re-exploration, spond to a change (Birke and Archer 1983). In general it is agreed that exploratory behavior will have a vital function in the life of animals in the wild, allowing them to gai
10、n information about their home range or territory that will be vital for survival. The wild boar, for example, does not live in large populations； most animals leave their natal group eventually to form small new groups, very likely inhabiting completely new areas. The male is entirely solitary. Wit
11、hin its home range a group will have sites for special purposes such as feeding, resting, sleeping, and wallowing (Fr/idrich 1974). To gain such a comprehensive knowledge of their environment the animals will have explored the home range and will each carry a cognitive map of the home range. Interes
12、tingly, it was shown in a study cited by Blasettietal. (1988), in which wild boars were followed using radio telemetry, that the animals on average spent 16% of their time traveling. This ability does not appear to have been lost in domesticated species. A brief study on a small group of domestic pi
13、gs released into an area of woodland in southern Sweden showed that during the first few days the pigs ranged widely over sections of the area but later restricted their movements to sections of the enclosure with the required resources, behavior indicative of the formation of a cognitive map and we
14、ll-developed exploratory behavior (Wood-Gush et al. 1989). In another study, Grazfeld (1986) has reported on the behavior of the Nez noir sheep or Schwarznasenschaf of Switzerland which also have well separated sites for grazing and resting, also indicating the possession of cognitive maps. Although
15、 this breed is very old, dating from at least the fifteenth century and thought to be virtually unchanged, it is unlikely that it is unique among domesticated animals； cattle and sheep living under extensive agricultural conditions would also have to exercise their exploratory capabilities in order
16、to survive. Russell (1983) argued that the division of exploratory behavior will be artificial in most cases, for an animal patrolling its territory will indulge in both extrinsic and intrinsic exploration. However, in the case of animals kept in monotonous farm or laboratory conditions, the divisio
17、n seems important. Extrinsic exploration is under the control of different causal mechanisms from intrinsic exploration and under mechanisms that may vary temporally； at one time, for example, being controlled by hunger mechanisms and by nesting behavior at another. Nevertheless, despite different c
18、ausal mechanisms, it is possible that while performing the appetitive component of one drive, the animal through latent learning may be acquiring information useful in relation to other motivational systems. Therefore with respect to animal welfare, we deal with the differ- ent types of extrinsic ex
19、ploration or appetitive behavior together, regardless of their controlling mechanisms. On the other hand, it has been suggested (Baxter 1983) that the sow, if provided with a nest comfortable to her udder, will forgo much of her nesting behavior. However, proof of this has not yet come to hand. It h
20、as been shown that the sow approaching parturition performs much appetitive behavior (Jensen 1986), seeking a place that is safe and that has a number of other criteria, as would her relative, the wild boar sow. Domestication may have blurred some of the responses, but as Stolba and Wood-Gush (1989)
21、 reported, the behavior of the two subspecies is very similar, if the domesticated sow is given the opportunity to express her behavioral repertoire. The question in rela- tion to the welfare of the intensively kept animal is whether conditions that prohibit the fulfillment or performance of extrins
22、ic exploratory behavior are detrimental. Before proceeding to discuss this question, it is necessary to define two terms. We often use the term abnormal behavior. Most of these behavior patterns belong to the categories listed as abnormal by Wiepkema et al. (1983). In addition, a behavior pattern wh
23、ich may appear normal in execution but which is performed at a significantly high rate or performed out of context is referred to as abnormal. When we say that the animal is frustrated, we mean that it is motivated to perform a particular behavioral sequence but is thwarted because of interference o
24、r lack of suitable stimuli to guide its behavior or is in conflict, due to the simultaneous arousal of conflicting motivational systems. The apathy, by which it is meant that the animal ceases to respond to stimuli second term is that would normally elicit a response. The excessive and often stereotyped pacing by hens of some strains in battery cages before oviposition signifies the absence of the stimuli that would normally guide the hens behavior through the stages of seeking a nest site, building a nest, and then sitting until oviposition； the hen is blocked at the early stage of the
