1、中文 4510 字 标题： The State of Celebrity Endorsement in Sport 原文： Abstract Sport endorsers were present in 11% of all television advertisements in 1995,receiving more than $1 billion dollars from U.S. companies for their services. Along with several positive advertising campaigns, there have been some l
2、ess successful efforts involving celebrities as spokespersons. The most recent and vivid occurrence is O.J. Simpson and his endorsem ent with Hertz Rental cars. This article describes the advantages and disadvantages of celebrity-based advertising in sport and examines future directions for this mar
3、keting approach. Approximately 20% of all television commercials feature a famous person from the world of sport, television, movies or musical entertainment. Of the billions of dollars allocated annually for television advertising, approximately 10% is spent on endorsers (Agrawal & Kamakura, 1995).
4、 Many companies have had considerable success using celebrities as spokespersons, especially athletes. In 1995, U.S. companies paid more than $1 billion to 2000 athletes for endorsement deals (Lane, 1996). Sport endorsers were featured in 11% of all television advertisements that same year (Turner,
5、Bounds, Hauser, Motsinger, Ozmore, & Smith, 1995). Examples of high profile celebrity endorsers include Sheryl Swopes, Deion Sanders, Michael Jordan and Bo Jackson for Nike, Shaquille ONeal for Reebok, Tiger Woods for Rolex, and Jimmy Connors for Advil. Along with the positive campaigns, there have
6、been several less successful marketing campaigns involving celebrities as spokespersons. The most recent and vivid occurrence is O.J. Simpson and his endorsement with Hertz Rental cars. The purpose of this article is to describe the advantages and disadvantages of sport celebrity-based advertising a
7、nd to discuss future directions for this marketing approach. Advantages of Celebrity Endorsements There are several benefits to having celebrities endorse products or services. Research has indicated that customers are more likely to choose goods and services endorsed by celebrities than those witho
8、ut such endorsements (Agrawal & Kamakura, 1995). Marketing Evaluations Inc. has compiled a list of 1,500 U.S.-known celebrities with appealing qualities to consumers. Most of the 1,500 were viewed as familiar and likable (Miciak & Shanklin, 1994). Another advantage to celebrity-based campaigns is th
9、at famous people hold the viewers attention. In this era of sound-bytes and channel surfing, there is a demand for peoples time and focus. For instance, a commercial with the WNBAs Lisa Leslie or NHLs Wayne Gretzky is more likely to keep a television remote control clicker on the channel versus a co
10、mmercial with a local doctor or dentist. People want to see Andre Agassi and others of such celebrity. The third benefit of using celebrity endorsers is that s/he can provide testimony for a product or service, particularly when the product has contributed to their celebrity. Consumers may be more l
11、ikely to try a motor oil endorsed by Al Unser, Jr. This relationship can increase a consumers belief and trust in the product and its benefits. The more familiar an endorser, the more likely consumers are to buy the endorsed product (Miciak & Shanklin, 1994). Disadvantages of Celebrity Endorsements
12、There are some negative consequences to using sport celebrities as endorsers. The first issue concerns the high financial to secure the big name endorsers. Pepsi paid Shaquille ONeal $25 million to endorse the popular soda product. Tiger Woods received $40 million from Nike to support the companys y
13、outh marketing campaign. Although these large companies do not have a problem spending top dollar necessary to acquire famous personalities, most small companies struggle to afford any celebrities, let alone ones that cost $25 or $40 million dollars. It is a bigger risk for the smaller companies to
14、invest large amounts. Their losses are greater if something goes wrong. Nike was not phased by the 1996 case involving Dallas Cowboy wide receiver Michael Irvin, who was caught by police with drugs and prostitutes in local hotel room. Irvin was only a small piece of Nikes endorsement scheme. However
15、, there were 13 small Toyota dealerships that suffered tremendously. They had the Cowboys star lined up to do a series of commercials, worth about $500,000. Not only did they lose the money invested in Irvin and the ads, they also had to incur more expense by finding a replacement for him (Lane, 199
16、6). Another negative aspect is that a company may not be able to get a celebrity to represent their product exclusively. He/she may endorse several products, sometimes switching their endorsements to rival brands. This happens frequently when trying to secure someone that is well-liked by society an
17、d in high demand for product endorsements. As a result, the credibility and trust in the product and the endorser decreases. It also sends a message to the consumer that, If the endorser wont stick with a brand, why should I? Auto racings Jeff Gordon is an example of one who has multiple endorsement
18、 contracts and consequently, is less effective as an endorser. The third and potentially most damaging risk in using high-profile candidates is negative publicity received by an endorser. Some familiar cases include murder charges brought against O.J. Simpson, rape charges and a jail sentence agains
19、t Mike Tyson and drug charges against Michael Irvin. Hertz, Pepsi, Kodak, Nike and Toyota all felt the consequences of the celebrities actions. When a negative image of the celebrity is portrayed, a tarnished picture is also painted for the organization, making it difficult to gain consumer trust to
20、 buy the product. Although there is no way to guarantee that detrimental incidents like these wont occur, some situations might be prevented by evaluating the applicants personal and professional behavior to determine if they might be prone to negative situations. Once all aspects of celebrity-orien
21、ted advertising have been evaluated, a company must choose whether to adopt the strategy. If the decision is made decide to proceed, the foundation of a successful endorser selection rests in four concepts, known by the acronym FRED. FRED stands for familiarity, relevance, esteem and differentiation
22、, and was the result of a $6 million study interviewing 30,000 people around the world to find out why brands and their advertising efforts succeed and fail (Miciak & Shanklin, 1994). Familiarity is the first essential component of an effective endorser. The target market must be aware of the celebrity, and perceive the person as friendly and likable,
