1、1 中文 3301 字 本科毕业设计（论文） 外 文 翻 译 原文 ： Agricultural Modernization or an Organic Treadmill The Development of Organic Farming: Applying Ecological Modernization Theory According to one of its founding theorists, Arthur Mol, four central elements define ecological modernization theory. The first concerns
2、 technology. From this perspective, science and technology are central institutions for ecological reform(Mol 1997, 140). Unlike earlier environmental thinking, which perceived technological development as a source of ecological problems, ecological modernization theorists argue that, in the contemp
3、orary era, technology is being used to help us achieve ecological sustainability. Second, ecological modernization theorists identify market economies as being fully compatible with and supportive of progress toward environmentally sound production. They stress the increasing importance of economic
4、and market dynamics in ecological reform and the role of nnovators, entrepreneurs and other economic agents as social carriers of ecological restructuring (p. 141). Such actors may seek to meet market demand by competing on the basis of environmental performance, by creating standards and certificat
5、ion programs, and by generating their own niche markets through environmental appeals to concerned consumers. Third, ecological modernization theory posits a role for the state in environmental protection, albeit a fundamentally different one from its traditional command and control approach. Instea
6、d of imposing rigid regulations from an insulated centralized bureaucracy, in the modern ecological era the state acts to steer private actors toward environmentally sound practice, all the while allowing for flexibility and incorporating targeted parties into a participatory process of site-specifi
7、c reform. Lastly, ecological modernization theorists identify a new role for environmental movement organizations. According to Mol, The role of environmental movements is slowly shifting from that of a critical commentator outside societal developments to 2 that of a critical and still independent
8、participant in developments aimed at an ecological transformation (Mol 1997, 142). Movements today serve to generate ideas and build public support for environmental practices while working with state and private actors to develop environmentally sound policies. These are the four central features o
9、f ecological modernization theory. Ecological modernization theorists have applied this perspective to interpret developments such as the reduction in packaging waste (Lauber and Ingram 2000), improved industrial energy efficiency (Enevoldsen 2000), and the reduction of toxic waste within the chemic
10、al industry(Mol 1995； 1997). The institutionalization of organic agriculture provides another opportunity to assess how well ecological modernization theory applies to the social processes associated with this development. The growth in organic farming beginning in the 1970s emerged out of a conflue
11、nce of social developments, some of which began decades earlier (Guthman 2004a； Treadwell et al. 2003). J. I. Rodale is credited with advancing organic farming in the United States beginning in the 1940s through his magazine Organic Gardening. Yet it was the countercultural back-to-the-land movement
12、 of the 1960s combined with the environmental and health movements that developed in the 1970s that laid the foundation for the expansion of organic agriculture. Since then, interest in organic methods from a larger segment of the agriculture industry, along with state support in the form of federal
13、 standards, has led to rapid growth in the organic sector (Dimitri and Greene 2002). An Organic Treadmill In many ways, the development of organic food production and the institution alization of these practices by the federal government reflect the central argument put forth by ecological moderniza
14、tion theorists. Social movement organizations representing farmers, consumers, and environmentalists, market forces, enlightened business owners, and the state acted together to create a policy designed to advance a more environmentally sound method of farming. In contrast, treadmill theorists see a
15、 system that is driven by the united forces of capital, labor, and the state, all of whom have an interest in expanding production with little regard for the ecological implications (Schnaiberg 1980； Schnaiberg and Gould 1994). From this perspective organic agriculture is, at best,an authentic socia
16、l change movement that was co-opted by the dominant treadmill forces, who redirected it in order to increase profits and expand production. 3 In examining these central actors, capital is viewed as fully committed to economic expansion due to the competitive pressure inherent in market economies. Ow
17、ners must continuously reinvest in order to remain profitable in a competitive environment. This typically means expanding production or developing less costly means of producing goods and services. Although cost reductions can, at times, also involve environmental efficiencies, historically this pr
18、ocess has involved the introduction of l abor-saving technology that relies on more toxic chemicals and greaterenergy usage. Thus, more resource withdrawals and more hazardous by-products are generated as the overall rate of production increases. Agricultural Modernization or an Organic Treadmill In
19、 looking at the development of organic agriculture in the United States, there is significant evidence to support both ecological modernization and treadmill theory interpretations. In this sense, when considering the organic case, it is not possible to declare a definitive winner. But examining the
20、 social processes associated with specific economic developments provides us with more material with which to consider our environmental future from each theoretical perspective. Do the development and spread of organic agriculture represent a trend toward an ecologically sustainable food production
21、 system? While the ultimate benefits of organic agriculture cannot be determined based on this analysis, even if those benefits were significant, a central treadmill theory critique of ecological modernization can be applied here: A limited positive development is being mistaken for the start of a c
22、ontinuous trajectory. Despite significant growth, organic food is still a niche market and in a cost-competitive industry it will likely remain such (Guthman 2004a； Lyons 1999；Michelsen 2001b). Thus, the environmental promise of organic production may not prove to be as great as implied by ecologica
23、l modernization theory. In addition, critics are likely correct in that the benefits of organic production will be far fewer than expected, given treadmill processes that tend to erase environmental gains over time. But one might still argue that organic production represents a lasting improvement o
24、ver conventional agriculture. The analysis need not focus on the issue of whether organics are all they are alleged to be or whether organic production will eventually fully displace conventional agriculture, but rather, is it better than the alternative, even if limited to a relatively small segment of the overall food market?
