1、http:/ 外文文献翻译（译成中文 1000 字左右）： 【 主要阅读文献不少于 5 篇 ，译文后附注 文献信息，包括 ： 作者、书名（或论文题目）、出 版 社（或刊物名称）、出版时间（或刊号）、页码 。 提供 所译外文资料附件（印刷类含封面、封底、目录、翻译部分的复印件等，网站类的请附网址及原文 】 原文： CHALLENGES OF URBAN PLANNING AT THE FACE OF COUNTER-URBANIZATION INTRODUCTION World population is currently growing at a rate of 1.2 percent an
2、nually, implying a net addition of 77 million people per year. Six countries account for half of that annual increment: India for 21 percent； China for 12 percent； Pakistan for 5 percent； Bangladesh, Nigeria and the United States of America for 4 percent each. Today the population of the more develo
3、ped regions of the world is rising at an annual rate of 0.25 percent. For the less developed regions, this figure is nearly six times higher (1.46 percent) (Population 2005, 2003). The worlds urban population today is around 3 billion the same size as the worlds total population in 1960. During the
4、20th century, it increased more than tenfold and close to 50 percent of the worlds population now lives in urban centers, compared to less than 15 percent in 1900 (Satterthwaite, 2005). However, the very important population growth rate has begun to slow down. From a record high annual growth rate o
5、f 2% in 1968, it has declined to 1.4% in 2000. That is a 30% decrease in the rate of growth, and it will have significant effects on future demographic developments (UNjobs, 2005). Before stating the planning subjects at the era of counter-urbanization, it is worthwhile to justify the extent of coun
6、ter-urbanization. The extent of problems and opportunities are largely dependent upon this. Unfortunately, urbanization rate in the developed nations are slower than that of the Asia, Latin American, Caribbean and African countries. Nevertheless, this rate is slowing down day by day. Moreover, geogr
7、aphically non-transferable assets like social relations to friends and relatives, properties, and place attachment certainly play an important role in the decision-making process of counter-urbanization (Lindgren, 2002). These reasons are very dependent upon the socio-economic conditions and politic
8、o-cultural surroundings. Due to the difference of these issues, the population transition would occur at different parts of the http:/ world at different time. For instance, Japan, USA, Italy etc. have already started loosing population. On the contrary, South Asian and sub-Saharan African countries
9、 are still growing up in their population volume. They will be the last to go through thi demographic transition. And population is one of the basic determinants of the development of a region. Due to the variation of timing in the demographic transition, global inequality, migration related problem
10、s, terrorism etc. occur. The shift of humans from being predominantly rural to predominantly urban is an integral part of the demographic transition and is moving along in concert with the other parts of the demographic transition. The world has in fact reached the point in history where it can visu
11、alize the end of the urban transition. This is already happening in the more developed nations, where nearly everyone lives in or very close to an urban environment. However, the end of the urban transition does not necessarily signal the end of urban evolution (Chang-Hee, Richardson, and Bae, 2004)
12、. Evolutionary processes includ patterns of sub-urbanization, ex-urbanization, peri-urbanization (the shift of urban populations from more dense to less dense regions), multi-nucleation (the clustering of population around several centers, rather than just one, within the same region) and even count
13、er-urbanization (a return of some people back to more urban places) (Weeks, Larson, and Fugate, 2005). The decline of once urban powerhouses such as Detroit, Buffalo, Cleveland, a Philadelphia is an outstanding feature of the evolution of American cities in the latter half of the 20th century. In ad
14、dition, the American story is not unique, as the shift of manufacturing employment away from urban areas also was foreboding for the decline of European cities such as Glasgow, Liverpool, Rotterdam, and Turin. Globalization, exclusion, multiculturalism and ethnicity, governance, ecology, science and
15、 technology, are driving social transformations at work in cities (in various forms and degrees of intensity), presenting a series of continuing challenges to people and to decision-makers (Sachs-Jeantet, 1995). In several countries, the discussion about the new urban form in which we live started i
16、n the early eighties from the concept of de-urbanization, with loose talk about the “death of cities” and even on what has been called “neo-ruralization” (l). The idea that the city is dying is not new and it has surfaced periodically ever since the urban form made its appearance. However speculatio
17、n on the social effects of the explosive diffusion of information technology, gave empirical body to the most recent version of this recurrent idea. In fact, the city, and even the large city, is far from disappearing. Trends observed so far, in urban systems in most of the advanced http:/ economies
18、 (2), indicate that cities are not declining but are undergoing a profound transformation, the full consequences of which are still to be completely fathomed (Martinotti, 1996； Sachs-Jeantet, 1995). In the case of natural decrease of population, not only urban areas but also rural population will de
19、crease. An annual loss of 1.5% in rural population is expected in these more developed regions (Frey and Zimmer, 2001). Now the question comes, whether urban congestion and sprawl will also decrease with the rate of population decrease. The answer would be negative. Because, people would prefer to l
20、ive close to the urban areas to enjoy the social life, community services and facilities. Moreover, when rural population will decrease, some people may feel to be socially isolated. This isolation would cause a severe social disaster. For example, the suicidal tendencies, social crime among the peo
21、ple would increase. This paper will not only describe the local level planning and management issues but also global scale policy issues in the era counter urbanization. Counter-urbanization is usually seen in the prominent or old urban areas. Because of counter urbanization, a complete urban econom
22、ic transformation would occur in these areas. Housing, industrial and motorway developments around new towns threaten (previous) areas of outstanding beauty. Due to the urban to rural migration, traditional rural form will be fragmented and a new urban character dominated rural area will emerge.From
23、 the very external viewpoint, this would somehow look like the Garden city. Nevertheless, through extensive resource extraction and waste disposal, these semi-rural communities would increase the intensity of pollution. Controlling this environment will be a tough task for the planners in the 21st c
24、entury. Solid waste management and resource management is much easier if many people live in a small area (urban areas) than in the rural areas. Hence, with the increase of the counter-urban migration urban areas would loose its environmental sustainability. Management of the waste and resource will
25、 be a great challenge for the urban local government. In the developing world, due to the rapid urbanization, management of the cities has become almost impossible. For example, the urbanization of Bangladesh is quite similar to the Latin American urbanization； formerly called over-urbanization in 1950s, a situation where a rapid rate of urbanization did not mean a corresponding growth in industry and economy but a shift of people from lowproductivity rural agricultural employment to low-productivity urban employment or underemployment. The clearest symptoms of over-
