1、英文 文献 Air Conditioning Systems Air conditioning has rapidly grown over the past 50 years, from a luxury to a standard system included in most residential and commercial buildings. In 1970, 36% of residences in the U.S. were either fully air conditioned or utilized a room air conditioner for cooling
2、(Blue, et al., 1979). By 1997, this number had more than doubled to 77%, and that year also marked the first time that over half (50.9%) of residences in the U.S. had central air conditioners (Census Bureau, 1999). An estimated 83% of all new homes constructed in 1998 had central air conditioners (C
3、ensus Bureau, 1999). Air conditioning has also grown rapidly in commercial buildings. From 1970 to 1995, the percentage of commercial buildings with air conditioning increased from 54 to 73% (Jackson and Johnson, 1978, and DOE, 1998). Air conditioning in buildings is usually accomplished with the us
4、e of mechanical or heat-activated equipment. In most applications, the air conditioner must provide both cooling and dehumidification to maintain comfort in the building. Air conditioning systems are also used in other applications, such as automobiles, trucks, aircraft, ships, and industrial facili
5、ties. However, the description of equipment in this chapter is limited to those commonly used in commercial and residential buildings. Commercial buildings range from large high-rise office buildings to the corner convenience store. Because of the range in size and types of buildings in the commerci
6、al sector, there is a wide variety of equipment applied in these buildings. For larger buildings, the air conditioning equipment is part of a total system design that includes items such as a piping system, air distribution system, and cooling tower. Proper design of these systems requires a qualifi
7、ed engineer. The residential building sector is dominated by single family homes and low-rise apartments/condominiums. The cooling equipment applied in these buildings comes in standard packages that are often both sized and installed by the air conditioning contractor. The chapter starts with a gen
8、eral discussion of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle then moves to refrigerants and their selection, followed by packaged Chilled Water Systems。 2 1.1 Vapor Compression Cycle Even though there is a large range in sizes and variety of air conditioning systems used in buildings, most systems u
9、tilize the vapor compression cycle to produce the desired cooling and dehumidification. This cycle is also used for refrigerating and freezing foods and for automotive air conditioning. The first patent on a mechanically driven refrigeration system was issued to Jacob Perkins in 1834 in London, and
10、the first viable commercial system was produced in 1857 by James Harrison and D.E. Siebe.Besides vapor compression, there are two less common methods used to produce cooling in buildings: the absorption cycle and evaporative cooling. These are described later in the chapter. With the vapor compressi
11、on cycle, a working fluid, which is called the refrigerant, evaporates and condenses at suitable pressures for practical equipment designs. The four basic components in every vapor compression refrigeration system are the compressor, condenser, expansion device, and evaporator. The compressor raises
12、 the pressure of the refrigerant vapor so that the refrigerant saturation temperature is slightly above the temperature of the cooling medium used in the condenser. The type of compressor used depends on the application of the system. Large electric chillers typically use a centrifugal compressor wh
13、ile small residential equipment uses a reciprocating or scroll compressor. The condenser is a heat exchanger used to reject heat from the refrigerant to a cooling medium. The refrigerant enters the condenser and usually leaves as a subcooled liquid. Typical cooling mediums used in condensers are air
14、 and water. Most residential-sized equipment uses air as the cooling medium in the condenser, while many larger chillers use water. After leaving the condenser, the liquid refrigerant expands to a lower pressure in the expansion valve. The expansion valve can be a passive device, such as a capillary
15、 tube or short tube orifice, or an active device, such as a thermal expansion valve or electronic expansion valve. The purpose of the valve is toregulate the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator so that the refrigerant is superheated when it reaches the suction of the compressor. At the exit of the
16、 expansion valve, the refrigerant is at a temperature below that of the medium (air or water) to be cooled. The refrigerant travels through a heat exchanger called the evaporator. It absorbs energy from the air or water circulated through the evaporator. If air 3 is circulated through the evaporator
17、, the system is called a direct expansion system. If water is circulated through the evaporator, it is called a chiller. In either case, the refrigerant does not make direct contact with the air or water in the evaporator. The refrigerant is converted from a low quality, two-phase fluid to a superhe
18、ated vapor under normal operating conditions in the evaporator. The vapor formed must be removed by the compressor at a sufficient rate to maintain the low pressure in the evaporator and keep the cycle operating. All mechanical cooling results in the production of heat energy that must be rejected t
19、hrough the condenser. In many instances, this heat energy is rejected to the environment directly to the air in the condenser or indirectly to water where it is rejected in a cooling tower. With some applications, it is possible to utilize this waste heat energy to provide simultaneous heating to th
20、e building. Recovery of this waste heat at temperatures up to 65C (150F) can be used to reduce costs for space heating. Capacities of air conditioning are often expressed in either tons or kilowatts (kW) of cooling. The ton is a unit of measure related to the ability of an ice plant to freeze one sh
21、ort ton (907 kg) of ice in 24 hr. Its value is 3.51 kW (12,000 Btu/hr). The kW of thermal cooling capacity produced by the air conditioner must not be confused with the amount of electrical power (also expressed in kW) required to produce the cooling effect. 2.1 Refrigerants Use and Selection Up unt
22、il the mid-1980s, refrigerant selection was not an issue in most building air conditioning applications because there were no regulations on the use of refrigerants. Many of the refrigerants historically used for building air conditioning applications have been chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydroch
23、lorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Most of these refrigerants are nontoxic and nonflammable. However, recent U.S. federal regulations (EPA 1993a； EPA 1993b) and international agreements (UNEP, 1987) have placed restrictions on the production and use of CFCs and HCFCs. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are now being
24、 used in some applications where CFCs and HCFCs were used. Having an understanding of refrigerants can help a building owner or engineer make a more informed decision about the best choice of refrigerants for specific applications. This section discusses the different refrigerants used in or proposed for building air conditioning applications and the regulations
