1、 英文文献资料 （一） Clusters and the New Economics of Competition Michael E. Porter （ Harvard university） Why Clusters Are Critical to Competition Modern competition depends on productivity, not on access to inputs or the scale of individual enterprises.Productivity rests on how companies compete,not on the
2、 particular fields they compete in.Companies can be highly productive in any industry shoes, agriculture, or semiconductors if they employ sophisticated methods, use advanced technology,and offer unique products and services. All industries can employ advanced technology； all industries can be knowl
3、edge intensive. The sophistication with which companies compete in a particular location, however, is strongly influenced by the quality of the local business environment.1 Companies cannot employ advanced logistical techniques, for example, without a high quality transportation infrastructure. Nor
4、can companies effectively compete on sophisticated service without well-educated employees. Businesses cannot operate efficiently under onerous regulatory red tape or under a court system that fails to resolve disputes quickly and fairly. Some aspects of the business environment, such as the legal s
5、ystem, for example, or corporate tax rates, affect all industries. In advanced economies, however, the more decisive aspects of the business environment are often cluster specific； these constitute some of the most important microeconomic foundations for competition. Clusters affect competition in t
6、hree broad ways:first, by increasing the productivity of companies based in the area； second, by driving the direction and pace of innovation, which underpins future productivity growth； and third, by stimulating the formation of new businesses, which expands and strengthens the cluster itself. A cl
7、uster allows each member to benefit as if it had greater scale or as if it had joined with others formally without requiring it to sacrifice its flexibility. Clusters and Productivity. Being part of a cluster allows companies to operate more productively in sourcing inputs； accessing information, te
8、chnology,and needed institutions； coordinating with related companies； and measuring and motivating improvement. Better Access to Employees and Suppliers. Companies in vibrant clusters can tap into an existing pool of specialized and experienced employees, thereby lowering their search and transacti
9、on costs in recruiting. Because a cluster signals opportunity and reduces the risk of relocation for employees, it can also be easier to attract talented people from other locations, a decisive advantage in some industries. A well-developed cluster also provides an efficient means of obtaining other
10、 important inputs.Such a cluster offers a deep and specialized supplier base. Sourcing locally instead of from distant suppliers lowers transaction costs. It minimizes the need for inventory, eliminates importing costs and delays, and because local reputation is important lowers the risk that suppli
11、ers will overprice or renege on commitments. Proximity improves communications and makes it easier for suppliers to provide ancillary or support services such as installation and debugging. Other things being equal, then, local outsourcing is a better solution than distant outsourcing, especially fo
12、r advanced and specialized inputs involving embedded technology, information, and service content. Formal alliances with distant suppliers can mitigate some of the disadvantages of distant outsourcing. But all formal alliances involve their own complex bargaining and governance problems and can inhi
13、bit a companys flexibility. The close, informal relationships possible among companies in a cluster are often a superior Arrangement. In many cases, clusters are also a better alternative to vertical integration.Compared with in-house units, outside specialists are often more cost effective and resp
14、onsive, not only in component production but also in services such as training. Although extensive vertical integration may have once been the norm, a fast-changing environment can render vertical integration inefficient, ineffective, and inflexible. Even when some inputs are best sourced from a dis
15、tance, clusters offer advantages. Suppliers trying to penetrate a large, concentrated market will price more aggressively, knowing that as they do so they can realize efficiencies in marketing and in service. Working against a clusters advantages in assembling resources is the possibility that compe
16、tition will render them more expensive and scarce. But companies do have the alternative of outsourcing many inputs from other locations, which tends to limit potential cost penalties. More important, clusters increase not only the demand for specialized inputs but also their supply. Access to Speci
17、alized Information. Extensive market, technical, and competitive information accumulates within a cluster, and members have preferred access to it. In addition, personal relationships and community ties foster trust and facilitate the flow of information. These conditions make information more trans
18、ferable. Complementarities. A host of linkages among cluster members results in a whole greater than the sum of its parts. In a typical tourism cluster, for example, the quality of a visitors experience depends not only on the appeal of the primary attraction but also on the quality and efficiency o
19、f complementary businesses such as hotels, restaurants, shopping outlets, and transportation facilities. Because members of the cluster are mutually dependent, good performance by one can boost the success of the others. Complementarities come in many forms. The most obvious is when products complem
20、ent one another in meeting customers needs, as the tourism example illustrates. Another form is the coordination of activities across companies to optimize their collective productivity. In wood products, for instance, the efficiency of sawmills depends on a reliable supply of high-quality timber an
21、d the ability to put all the timber to use in furniture (highest quality), pallets and boxes (lower quality), or wood chips (lowest quality). In the early 1990s, Portuguese sawmills suffered from poor timber quality because local landowners did not invest in timber management. Hence most timber was
22、processed for use in pallets and boxes, a lower-value use that limited the price paid to landowners. Substantial improvement in productivity was possible, but only if several parts of the cluster changed simultaneously. Logging operations, for example, had to modify cutting and sorting procedures, w
23、hile sawmills had to develop the capacity to process wood in more sophisticated ways. Coordination to develop standard wood classifications and measures was an important enabling step. Geographically dispersed companies are less likely to recognize and capture such linkages. Other complementarities
24、arise in marketing. A cluster frequently enhances the reputation of a location in a particular field, making it more likely that buyers will turn to a vendor based there. Italys strong reputation for fashion and design, for example, benefits companies involved in leather goods, footwear, apparel, an
25、d accessories. Beyond reputation, cluster members often profit from a variety of joint marketing mechanisms, such as company referrals, trade fairs, trade magazines, and marketing delegations. Finally, complementarities can make buying from a cluster more attractive for customers. Visiting buyers ca
26、n see many vendors in a single trip. They also may perceive their buying risk to be lower because one location provides alternative suppliers. That allows them to multisource or to switch vendors if the need arises. Hong Kong thrives as a source of fashion apparel in part for this reason. Access to
27、Institutions and Public Goods. Investments made by government or other public institutions such as public spending for specialized infrastructure or educational programs can enhance a companys productivity. The ability to recruit employees trained at local programs, for example, lowers the cost of i
28、nternal training. Other quasi-public goods, such as the clusters information and technology pools and its reputation, arise as natural by-products of competition. It is not just governments that create public goods that enhance productivity in the private sector. Investments by companies in training
29、 programs, infrastructure, quality centers, testing laboratories, and so on also contribute to increased productivity. Such private investments are often made collectively because cluster participants recognize the potential for collective benefits. Better Motivation and Measurement. Local rivalry i
30、s highly motivating. Peer pressure amplifies competitive pressure within a cluster,even among noncompeting or indirectly competing companies. Pride and the desire to look good in the local community spur executives to attempt to outdo one another. Clusters also often make it easier to measure and co
31、mpare performances because local rivals share general circumstances for example, labor costs and local market access and they perform similar activities. Companies within clusters typically have intimate knowledge of their suppliers costs. Managers are able to compare costs and employees performance
32、 with other local companies. Additionally, financial institutions can accumulate knowledge about the cluster that can be used to monitor performance. Clusters and Innovation. In addition to enhancing productivity, clusters play a vital role in a companys ongoing ability to innovate. Some of the same
33、 characteristics that enhance current productivity have an even more dramatic effect on innovation and productivity growth. Because sophisticated buyers are often part of a cluster, companies inside clusters usually have a better window on the market than isolated competitors do. Computer companies
34、based in Silicon Valley and Austin, Texas, for example, plug into customer needs and trends with a speed difficult to match by companies located elsewhere. The ongoing relationships with other entities within the cluster also help companies to learn early about evolving technology, component and mac
35、hinery availability, service and marketing concepts, and so on. Such learning is facilitated by the ease of making site visits and frequent face-to-face contact. Clusters do more than make opportunities for innovation more visible. They also provide the capacity and the flexibility to act rapidly. A
36、 company within a cluster often can source what it needs to implement innovations more quickly. Local suppliers and partners can and do get closely involved in the innovation process, thus ensuring a better match with customers requirements. Companies within a cluster can experiment at lower cost and can delay large commitments until they are more assured that a given innovation will pan out. In contrast, a company relying on
