1、外文翻译 Hydorgen storage in wind turbine towers International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 29 (2004) 12771288 Ryan Kottenstettea, Jason Cotrellb； aSummer intern from Santa Clara University, 1235 Monroe St, Santa Clara, CA 95050, USA National Wind Technology Centre, National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
2、1614 Cole Blvd, Golden, CO 80401, USA Received 18 November 2003； accepted 15 December 2003 Abstract： Modern utility-scale wind turbine towers are typically conical steel hydrogen in what we have termed a hydrogen tower. This paper examines potential technical barriers to this technology and identi4e
3、s a minimum cost design. We discovered that hydrogen towers have a crossover pressure at which the critical mode of failure crosses over from fatigue to bursting. The crossover pressure for many turbine towers is between 1.0 and 1:5 mPa (approximately 1015 atm) The hydrogen tower design resulting in
4、 the least expensive hydrogen storage uses all of the available volume for storage and is designed at its crossover an additional $83,000 beyond the cost of the conventional tower) and would store 940 kg of hydrogen at1:1 mPa of pressure. The resulting incremental storage cost of $88/kg is approxima
5、tely 30% of that for conventional pressure vessels. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Keywords: Wind turbine； Tower； Hydrogen； Storage； Pressure vessel 1. Introduction Low-cost hydrogen storage is recognized as a cornerstone of a renewables-hyd
6、rogen economy. Modern utility-scale wind turbine towers are typically conical steel structures that, in addition to supporting the nacelle, could be used to store gaseous hydrogen. We have coined the phrase hydrogen tower to describe this technology. During hours, electrolyzers could use energy from
7、 the wind turbines or the grid to generate hydrogen and store it in turbine towers. There are many potential uses for this stored fuel. The stored hydrogen could later be used to generate electricity via a fuel cell during times of peak demand. This capacity for energy storage could signi4cantly mit
8、igate the drawbacks to the Auctuating nature of the wind and provide a cost ective means of meeting peak demand. Alternatively, the hydrogen could be used for fuel cell vehicles or transmitted to gaseous hydrogen pipelines. Storing hydrogen in a wind turbine tower appears to have been 4rst suggested
9、 by Lee Jay Fingersh at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory An extension of the hydrogen tower idea is to store hydrogen in shore wind turbine towers and posibly even foundations. shore foundations are of ten monopiles which could potentially provide large amounts of storage without ecting the
10、positioning ladder, and power electronics. A similar idea for generating and storing hydrogen in the base of a Aoating shore wind turbine was proposed by William Heronemus in the 1970s However, this study focuses on the economics and design of onshore hydrogen towers. The objectives of this paper ar
11、e as follows: (1) Identify the paramount considerations associated with using a wind turbine tower for hydrogen storage. (2) Propose and analyze a cost ective design for a hydrogen tower.03603199/$ 30.00 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy. (3) Co
12、mpare the cost of storage in hydrogen towers to the cost of hydrogen dtorage storage in conwentional pressure vessels There are many competitive methods of storing hydrogen such as liquid hydrogen storage, underground geologic storage, and transmission pipeline storage. However, a comparison was mad
13、e only to one storage technology to limit the scope of this study. Conventional pressure vessel tech- nology was chosen because it is the most widely available of the technologies and the method most likely to be used for the moderate amounts of hydrogen storage considered in this study. This study
14、engages these objectives within the wider wind-hydrogen system,Various balance of station costs such as transportation, licensing, and piping are therefore outside the scope of this report. This paper outlines the assumptions made during this study, outlines primary considerations associated with a
15、hydrogen tower, highlights design characteristics of a hydro- gentower, presents several conceptual designs, and assesses the feasibility of the concept based on comparisons to con- ventional towers and pressure vessels 2. Benchmarks and assumptions 2.1. Hydrogen generation This study assumes electr
16、olyzers generate the hydrogen to be stored in the hydrogen towers. As will later be demonstrated, the most economical pressures for storage in hydrogen towers are below 1:5 mPa. This study assumes that proton exchange membrane (PME) and high-pressure alkaline electrolyzers can produce htdrogen up to
17、 this pressure without the use of an additional compressor 2.2. Conventional towers We chose to use the 1.5-MW tower model speci4ed in the WindPACT Advanced Wind Turbine Designs Study as our baseline conventional tower This tower was modeled after a conventional tower built from four tapered, tubula
18、r, steel sections which are bolted together. Conventional towers are built by welding together cylingenerally decrease in steps as the tower tapers to smaller diameters at higher elevations. For simplicity, the Wind PACT tower model instead assumes the wall thickness tapers in a smooth linear fashio
19、n. The model assumes a constant tower diameter/wall thickness (d=t) ratio of 320. In order to save material costs, a highd tratio is desirable. However, forratios above 320, towers become subject to local wall buck- ling problems. Additional assumptions regarding the tower are that the diameter at t
20、he top is constrained to be at least 1=2 of the base diameter； the steel used for the tower walls has a yield strength of 350 mPa (about 50 ksi)； and the cost of the tower is $1.50/kg 3. For the purposes of this study, other costs were included, such as a personnel ladder ($10/ft), and a tower acces
21、s door ($2000 4xed cost). The modeled tower is shown in Fig.1with a tabulation of critical values listed in Table1. 2.3. Conventional pressure vessels Industrial pressure vessels for noncorrosive gases are of- ten built of carbon steel similar to that used in wind turbine tower construction. Althoug
22、h the most economical pressure vessel geometry is long and slender, vessels are often limited by shipping constraints to a practical length of about 25m. This length limitation means that in order to better distribute the high 4xed costs associated with 4ttings and manways, pressure vessels are desi
23、gned with relatively large diameters and high pressure ratings. Although higher pressures reduce the cost per kg of stored gas, higher pressures In this paper, storage devices are often compared based on a cost/mass ratio. This ratio is the cost (in dollars) of a storage device divided by the mass o
24、f deliverable hydrogen gas stored. The cost/mass ratio is used because it is more convenient than the common practice of citing a volumetric capacity and a pressure rating for each storage device. Use of the cost/mass ratio does, however, make the given values accurate only for hydrogen storage. Del
25、iverable hydrogen is the amount of hydrogen in the storage reservoir that can be extracted during the normal operation of the storage facility. In pressure vessels, a certain amount of gas is required to pro- vide a cushion. This is the volume of gas that must remain in the storage facility to provi
26、de the required pressurization to extract the remaining gas. In some scenarios, such as underground storage, the volume of inaccessible gas can be sign cost to In this study, the ect of this cushion gas is neglected when computing the store gaseous hydrogen because it is small when compared to other
27、 storage- related costs. In addition, this study models hydrogen as an ideal gas. This approximation is sulciently accurate for the low temperatures and pressures considered in this study. 3. Hydrogen tower considerations Hydrogen storage creates a number of additional considerations in wind turbine
28、 tower design. Accelerated at- mosphericcorrosion on the tower interior and hydrogen embrittlement may adversely aect the towers ductility, yield strength, and fatigue life. Additionally, storing hydrogen at pressure signi4cantly increases the stresses on the tower. Therefore, wall reinforcement wil
29、l likely be required. A structural analysis is required to evaluate how internal pressure may the towers design life. 3.1. Corrosion Both atmosphericcorrosion and hydrogen embrittlement will ect the interior of a hydrogen tower. Conventional wind turbine towers are protected internally and externally from atmosphericcorrosion by paint. When a tower is used to store a pressurized gas, however, it becomes subject to the guidelines set forth in the American Society of Mechanical
