1、英文资料翻译 Computer Language and Programming I. Introduction Programming languages, in computer science, are the artificial languages used to write a sequence of instructions (a computer program) that can be run by a computer. Similar to natural languages, such as English, programming languages have a v
2、ocabulary, grammar, and syntax. However, natural languages are not suited for programming computers because they are ambiguous,meaning that their vocabulary and grammatical structure may be interpreted in multiple ways. The languages used to program computers must have simple logical structures, and
3、 the rules for their grammar, spelling, and punctuation must be precise. Programming languages vary greatly in their sophistication and in their degree of versatility. Some programming languages are written to address a particular kind of computing problem or for use on a particular model of compute
4、r system. For instance, programming languages such as FORTRANandCOBOLwere written to solve certain general types of programming problemsFORTRAN for scientific applications, and COBOL for business applications. Although these languages were designed to address specific categories of computer problems
5、, they are highly portable, meaning that they may be used to program many types of computers. Other languages, such as machine languages, are designed to be used by one specific model of computer system, or even by one specific computer in certain research applications. The most commonly used progra
6、mming languages are highly portable and can be used to effectivelysolve diverse types of computing problems. Languages like C, PASCALand BASIC fall into this category. II. Language Types Programming languages can be classified as either low-level languages or high-level languages. Low-level programm
7、ing languages, or machine languages, are the most basic type of programming languages and can be understood directly by a computer. Machine languages differ depending on the manufacturer and model of computer. High-level languages are programming languages that must first be translated into a machin
8、e language before they can be understood and processed by a computer. Examples of high-level languages are C, C+, PASCAL, and FORTRAN. Assembly languages are intermediate languages that are very close to machine languages and do not have the level of linguistic sophistication exhibited by other high
9、-level languages, but must still be translated into machine language. 1. Machine Languages In machine languages, instructions are written as sequences of 1s and 0s, called bits, that a computer can understand directly. An instruction in machine language generally tells the computer four things: (1)
10、where to find one or two numbers or simple pieces of data in the main computer memory (Random Access Memory, or RAM), (2) a simple operation to perform, such as adding the two numbers together, (3) where in the main memory to put the result of this simple operation, and (4) where to find the next in
11、struction to perform. While all executable programs are eventually read by the computer in machine language, they are not all programmed in machine language. It is extremely difficult to program directly in machine language because the instructions are sequences of 1s and 0s. A typical instruction i
12、n a machine language might read 10010 1100 1011 and mean add the contents of storage register A to the contents of storage register B. 2. High-Level Languages High-level languages are relatively sophisticated sets of statements utilizing words and syntax from human language. They are more similar to
13、 normal human languages than assembly or machine languages and are therefore easier to use for writing complicated programs. Theseprogramming languages allow larger and more complicated programs to be developed faster. However, high-level languages must be translated into machine language by another
14、 program called a compiler before a computer can understand them. For this reason, programs written in a high-level language may take longer to execute and use up more memory than programs written in an assembly language. 3. Assembly Languages Computer programmers use assembly languages to make mach
15、ine-language programs easier to write. In an assembly language, each statement corresponds roughly to one machine language instruction. An assembly language statement is composed with the aid of easy to remember commands. The command to add the contents of the storage register A to the contents of s
16、torage register B might be written ADD B, A in a typical assembly language statement. Assembly languages share certain features with machine languages. For instance, it is possible to manipulate specific bits in both assembly and machine languages. Programmers use assembly languages when it is impor
17、tant to minimize the time it takes to run a program, because the translation from assembly language to machine language is relatively simple. Assembly languages are also used when some part of the computer has to be controlled directly, such as individual dots on a monitor or the flow of individual
18、characters to a printer. III. Classification of High-Level Languages High-level languages are commonly classified as procedure-oriented, functional, object-oriented, or logic languages. The most common high-level languages today are procedure-oriented languages. In these languages, one or more relat
19、ed blocks of statements that perform some complete function are grouped together into a program module, or procedure, and given a name such as “procedure A.” If the same sequence of operations is needed elsewhere in the program, a simple statement can be used to refer back to the procedure. In essen
20、ce, a procedure is just a mini-program. A large program can be constructed by grouping together procedures that perform different tasks. Procedural languages allow programs to be shorter and easier for the computer to read, but they require the programmer to design each procedure to be general enoug
21、h to be used in different situations.Functional languages treat procedures like mathematical functions and allow them to be processed like any other data in a program. This allows a much higher and more rigorous level of program construction. Functional languages also allow variablessymbols for data
22、 that can be specified and changed by the user as the program is runningto be given values only once. This simplifies programming by reducing the need to be concerned with the exact order of statement execution, since a variable does not have to beredeclaredor restated, each time it is used in a pro
23、gram statement. Many of the ideas from functional languages have become key parts of many modern procedural languages.Object-oriented languages are outgrowths of functional languages. In object-oriented languages, the code used to write the program and the data processed by the program are grouped t
24、ogether into units called objects. Objects are further grouped into classes, which define the attributes objects must have. A simple example of a class is the class Book. Objects within this class might be Novel and Short Story. Objects also have certain functions associated with them, called method
25、s. The computer accesses an object through the use of one of the objects methods. The method performs some action to the data in the object and returns this value to the computer. Classes of objects can also be further grouped into hierarchies, in which objects of one class can inherit methods from
26、another class. The structure provided in object-oriented languages makes them very useful for complicated programming tasks.Logic languages use logic as their mathematical base. A logic program consists of sets of facts and if-then rules, which specify how one set of facts may be deduced from others
27、, for example: If the statement X is true, then the statement Y is false. In the execution of such a program, an input statement can be logically deduced from other statements in the program. Many artificial intelligence programs are written in such languages. IV. Language Structure and Components P
28、rogramming languages use specific types of statements, or instructions, to provide functional structure to the program. A statement in a program is a basic sentence that expresses a simple ideaits purpose is to give the computer a basic instruction. Statements define the types of data allowed, how d
29、ata are to be manipulated, and the ways that procedures andfunctions work. Programmers use statements to manipulate common components of programming languages, such as variables and macros (mini-programs within a program). Statements known as data declarations give names and properties to elements o
30、f a program called variables. Variables can be assigned different values within the program. The properties variables can have are called types, and they include such things as what possible values might be saved in the variables, how much numerical accuracy is to be used in the values, and how one
31、variable may represent a collection of simpler values in an organized fashion, such as a table or array. In many programming languages, a key data type is a pointer. Variables that are pointers do not themselves have values； instead, they have information that the computer can use to locate some other
